In recent years, scholars and practitioners have shifted terminology from ‘middle managers’ to ‘middle leaders,’ representing the changing nature of middle managers’ roles as becoming increasingly complex (Chilvers et al., 2018; De Nobile, 2018). Middle managers are all levels of management between front-line supervisors and the top of the organization (Kieran et al., 2020). Middle managers are characterized by their intermediate power level – continually functioning as intermediaries between top management and the operational core – which is exemplified by receiving strategic direction from the ranks above and executing said strategy through the ranks below (Nghe et al., 2020; Way et al., 2018). Although middle managers’ organizational position in the hierarchical middle is often fraught with ambiguity, misunderstanding, and confusion, their unique vantage point gives them line of sight to the organization’s future via their relationship with upper management and their detailed understanding of organizational realities, increasing their potential as a strategic leadership asset (De Nobile, 2018; Kieran et al., 2020; Thornton et al., 2018). Underscoring the crucial nature of middle managers’ leadership role in the organizational hierarchy, Ong and Yaqiong (2018) suggested a tri-fold relationship between middle managers’ leadership competencies, increased employee performance, and improved organizational outcomes. In short, when middle managers act as leaders, middle managers drive the organization’s operating engine and become the most important level of leadership in the organization (Pavlopoulos, 2020).
With the total number of middle managers across all industries in the United States being nearly three times that of top executives, middle managers possess significant collective influence on organizational outcomes (Kieran et al., 2020; Larsson et al., 2020; Lleo et al., 2020; Occupational Outlook Handbook, 2021; Paetzel et al., 2019). Numerous researchers have asserted middle managers’ leadership strongly correlates to employee-related dynamics, including behaviors, engagement, productivity, satisfaction, and performance (Alamsjah, 2020; Hoang et al., 2020; Larsson et al., 2020; Lleo et al., 2020; Paetzel et al., 2019; Way et al., 2018). Despite such potential, however, it seems middle managers often fail to understand the leadership competencies required to perform as middle leaders and thus, fail to influence their employees’ performance positively (Alamsjah, 2020; Hoang et al., 2020; Larsson et al., 2020; Paetzel et al., 2019; Way et al., 2018). It appears a possible explanation for why middle managers lack understanding regarding their leadership competency requirements is because neither scholars nor practitioners have fully understood middle leadership in business as a unique construct (Alegbeleye & Kaufman, 2020; Alvesson & Jonsson, 2018; Jaser, 2020; Kieran et al., 2020; Larsson et al., 2020). Combined, these factors elevate the importance of understanding the leadership competencies middle managers require to perform as middle leaders, thereby improving employee performance.
A review of the extant literature suggested middle leadership as a unique construct – and middle leadership competencies as a subset thereof – has been somewhat developed within the field of education, but less so in the field of business (De Nobile, 2018, 2019; Farchi & Tubin, 2018; Gjerde & Alvesson, 2020; Grootenboer et al., 2019; Han & Jung, 2021; Harris et al., 2019; Hartviksen et al., 2020; Li et al., 2018; Lipscombe et al., 2020; Pavlopoulos, 2020; Reid & Dold, 2020; Thornton, 2020; Thornton et al., 2018; Wei, 2018; Whaley & Gillis, 2018). Numerous researchers issued a call for further research on middle leadership in business and other domains, and specifically, for exploration of middle managers’ leadership competencies (Alvesson & Jonsson, 2018; Boak & Crabbe, 2019; Chilvers et al., 2018; De Nobile, 2018; Gjerde & Alvesson, 2020; Hoang et al., 2020; Jaser, 2020; Larsson et al., 2020; Ong & Yaqiong, 2018; Wallace et al., in press).
Over the last several decades, the role of middle managers in practice has shifted from an administrative task orientation to a dynamic and strategic people orientation (De Nobile, 2018). Alvesson and Jonsson (2018) asserted middle managers transition into middle leadership when the middle leader influences a subordinate’s thinking and way of thinking by activating leadership competencies. Employees look to their middle managers for how to think, act, and perform. Thus, when middle managers act as middle leaders, middle managers drive the organization’s operating engine and become the most important level of leadership in the organization (Paetzel et al., 2019; Pavlopoulos, 2020). Positioned in the middle of the organizational hierarchy as intermediaries between senior leadership and the operational core, middle managers possess meaningful influence on employee performance, which is a key driver of organizational outcomes (Hoang et al., 2020; Larsson et al., 2020; Paetzel et al., 2019; Rusli et al., 2020; Way et al., 2018).
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